|
ANNEX E Regional arrangements in other countries
| Country |
Nature
of regions |
| Austria |
9 Länder. |
| Belgium
|
3 language communities: Française;
Flamande; Germanophone; and 3
regions: Flandre; Wallonie; and Bruxelles capital region. |
| Canada |
10
provinces and 3 territories. |
| Finland |
Autonomous
region of Åland. (Finland does not otherwise have regional government.) |
| France |
22 conseils regionaux. |
| Germany |
16 Länder. |
| Italy |
20 regioni (5 special regions; 15 ordinary regions). |
| Netherlands |
12
provinces. |
| Poland |
16 voivodships. |
| Portugal |
2
autonomous regions.(Mainland Portugal has not implemented regional
government.) |
| Spain |
17 communidades
autonomics. |
| AUSTRIA |
| Tiers of government. |
A federal state with three tiers
of government: Bund (federal level); Länder (regions); and Gemeinden
(local government). |
| Population range of
regions |
Smallest: Vorarlberg 350,000
Largest: Wien (Vienna) 1.6 million |
| Historical formation |
From 1918, following the
collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, a federal state was created in
Austria. The Länder were officially granted powers and duties within
the 1920 constitution. Most Länder have a historical identity that can
be traced back to the Middle Ages. |
| Democratic form |
The responsibilities of the
Länder are enshrined within the national constitution (Article 15).
Each Land has its own constitution, parliament (Landtag) and executive.
Members are directly elected via the Additional Member System. Each Land
parliament elects a head of government and a cabinet. The national
second chamber (Bundesrat) consists of Land MPs elected by the Landtag.
However, the Bundesrat has only limited powers, principally a power of
temporary veto against draft legislation proposed by the National
Assembly (Nationalrat). Austrian Länder are weaker than in many federal
systems. The federal government retains the dominant role in the
division of powers and functions, has sole legislative powers in respect
of key functions, and has sole responsibility for public finance.
Länder have legislative powers within a number of fields and
tax-raising powers for purposes not already covered by taxation within
federal legislation. The distribution of competencies amongst tiers of
government is set down within the national constitution. Länder have a
general power of competence, in which matters not explicitly the
responsibility of the state remains within the sphere of competence of
the Länder. Länder have power of veto against legislation proposed on
them from other levels and a supervisory role in respect of the
activities of municipalities. |
| Autonomy |
Austrian Länder are weaker than
in many federal systems. The federal government retains the dominant
role in the division of powers and functions, has sole legislative
powers in respect of key functions, and has sole responsibility for
public finance. Länder have legislative powers within a number of
fields and tax-raising powers for purposes not already covered by
taxation within federal legislation. The distribution of competencies
amongst tiers of government is set down within the national
constitution. Länder have a general power of competence, in which
matters not explicitly the responsibility of the state remains within
the sphere of competence of the Länder. Länder have power of veto
against legislation proposed on them from other levels and a supervisory
role in respect of the activities of municipalities. |
| Functions |
There is an overlap of functions and financial
responsibilities between the three tiers of government. Those of the Länder are:
-
Complete Länder competencies in both legislation and administration
(i.e. functions not assigned to the federal level) are:
environmental protection; building laws; land use planning; aspects
of agriculture and youth welfare; theatres; sport and tourism.
-
Federal legislation but Länder administration:
citizenship; traffic legislation; social welfare housing; urban
redevelopment
-
Federal legislation to establish general principles,
with Länder responsible for detailed legislation and
administration: basic social welfare; hospitals; land reform;
regional/local aspects of electricity system; primary and secondary
school building and maintenance.
The Länder’s main direct expenditures are on education, housing
(construction), health and hospitals. |
| Sources of finance |
- Shared taxes
45%
- Exclusive
taxes 2%
- Transfers
(grants etc.) 48%
- Other 4%
|
| Control of total public
expenditure |
26% |
| BELGIUM |
|
| Tiers of government |
Under a system of ‘co-operative
federalism’ Belgium government tiers comprise: central government (Gouvernement
Federal), a regional level of three language ‘communities’ (Flemish,
French and German-speaking) and three regions (Flanders (Flemish),
Wallonia (French), and Brussels capital region), with two-tier local
government consisting of provinces and municipalities. |
| Population range of
regions |
Smallest: 950,000 Brussels
capital region Largest: 5.9 million |
| Historical formation |
Flemish region Belgium has a
cultural history of regionalism due to the existence of three distinct
linguistic communities. However, it was not until 1993 that a new
federal constitution was formally adopted. The system of co-operative
federalism was designed to accommodate these communities. Belgium has
two types of regional structures: a composite upper level of
decentralised government of three language communities (Flemish, French,
and German), and three economic regions (Brussels city, Flanders,
Walloone). |
| Democratic form |
Regions have separate
institutions, with equal legal status and exclusive areas of competence.
The Flemish community and region has one government and parliament
whereas the French community and Walloon region have separate
parliaments and governments. The German-speaking community has powers in
relation to its municipalities but regional matters are dealt with by
the Walloon region. The capital region of Brussels is jointly overseen
by the French and Flemish communities. Elections to community and
regional parliaments are held every five years, using the list system;
these elections coincide with European elections. |
| Autonomy |
Belgium’s autonomy has a ‘double
structure’ where there is no hierarchy between federal and
sub-national levels of government. Therefore, federal law cannot
override sub-national law. The communities exercise power in ‘personal’
matters (languages, culture, education, media, health & welfare). |
| Functions |
The regions have territorial
& economic powers such as town and country planning, urbanisation,
environment, housing, employment, public works, transport, foreign
trade, agriculture and energy. They also supervise the local provinces
and municipalities. The communities and regions also have full powers in
the field of international relations relating to policy areas for which
they are responsible. |
| Sources of finance |
Belgium’s constitution gives
limited tax-raising powers to all levels of sub-national government.
Regions and communities rely heavily on these taxes, some of which are
shared with the federal government, as well as having autonomous
tax-raising powers. Under the current system it is a statutory
requirement that resources be transferred to these authorities on a
sufficient scale to enable them to perform their functions effectively,
with each region autonomously deciding the amount of the fund. |
| CANADA |
|
| Tiers of government |
A federal state with three tiers
of government: federal government (central state);
provincial/territorial governments (regions); and municipal governments
(local authorities). Two-tier local government (with county governments
in additional to municipal governments) exists in some provinces. |
| Population range of
regions |
Smallest territory: Nunavet
28,000 Smallest province: Prince Edward Island 139,000 Largest province:
Ontario 11.9 million |
| Historical formation |
Canada has been a federation
since inception in 1867 by an act of the UK Parliament, in order to
accommodate English-speaking and French-speaking communities, as well as
different economic interests. Initially there were four provinces but
this has increased to ten over a period of about 80 years. Generally
speaking, Canada has decentralised over the years, with provinces
accumulating a greater range of competencies. |
| Democratic form |
Elections have to take place
within a five-year time scale, using the first-past-the-post system.
Provincial assemblies are unicameral with executives drawn from the
legislature. |
| Autonomy |
Canada has a federal
constitution which provides a high level of autonomy to the provinces.
The federal government retains a formal capacity to ‘reserve’ or ‘disallow’
provincial legislation; this has not been used for 50 years. |
| Functions |
Enshrined
within the Constitution Act. However, provinces have a greater range of
competencies than territories. Provincial functions: prisons; social
security; health; education; civil law; justice; courts; police; births;
marriages; deaths; incorporating companies; management and sale of
public land; management of natural resources on land; alcohol sales.
Concurrent competencies: agriculture and immigration. Territories: do
not have competency over amending their constitutions, management and
sale of public lands, borrowing money solely on credit. Power to
incorporate companies is restricted. |
| Sources of finance |
Income tax is shared with
federal government. Provinces raise their own taxes (which varies
between province). Provinces also receive funding through federal
transfers. There are three main transfers – the Canada Health &
Social Transfer (CHST), the Equalization programme, and Territorial
Formula Financing (TFF) – and several smaller transfer programmes. In
2001–2002 provinces and territories received a total of 46.5 billion
Canadian dollars. These transfers are based on fiscal capacity of
province and aims to equalise fiscal imbalance and to create comparable
levels of public services across the provinces and territories. |
| Control of total public
expenditure |
41% |
| FINLAND |
|
| Tiers of government |
A unitary state with two tiers
of government: the central state government and 452 kunta
municipalities. There is no tier of regional government, although there
is an historical autonomous region of Åland. Finland is divided into 19
regions for strategic planning purposes. |
| Population range of
regions |
Smallest: Åland 25,700 Largest:
Uusimaa 1.3 million |
| Historical formation |
The 1919 Constitution made
provisions for a level of directly elected county councils though these
never came into effect. Following the Regional Development Act 1994, (a
response, in part, to the requirements of the EU Structural Funds), 19
appointed Regional Councils were created. |
| Democratic form |
The Åland autonomous region was
granted autonomy in 1921; the Government of Åland is the only
directly-elected regional assembly within Finland. Åland: Parliament is
called the Lagting, which appoints Åland’s government, the
Landskapsstyrelse. The Lagting consists of 30 members whom are elected
every four years by citizens of Åland. To ensure the interests of
Åland are represented at the national level, a representative sits
within the central state government. |
| Autonomy |
Åland: Lagting has the duty to
adopt the budget of Åland and possesses the right to pass laws in
education, culture and preservation of ancient monuments, health and
medical services, promotion of industry, internal communications,
municipal administration, the police service, the postal service, radio
and television. In this sphere, Åland functions in a
similar way to an independent state; however, laws passed by the Lagting
are subject to approval by the president of Finland, who retains the
power of veto. |
| Functions |
Education, culture, health services, economic
development, communications, police. |
| Sources of finance |
The state of Finland collects
taxes, duties and charges from the region of Åland, and in return the
Lagting receives 0.45% of the state budget (except state loans). The
Lagting has freedom to decide on what to allocate this money. |
| Control of total public
expenditure |
0.45% |
|
FRANCE |
|
| Tiers of government |
Four tiers of government:
central state; 22 régions1; 96 départements (upper tier local
government); and almost 37,000 communes (lower tier local government). |
| Population range of regions |
Smallest: Corsica 300,000
Largest: Ile-de-France 10.9 million |
| Historical formation |
Since 1956, France has been
divided into 22 administrative regions for state planning and
statistical purposes. Decentralisation laws passed in 1982 imposed
conseils regionaux (regional councils), which are directly elected,
although the first elections were not held until 1986. Regional
boundaries have been purposely designed in an artificial manner so as
not to reflect traditional identities. |
| Democratic form |
French regions each have their
own conseil régional and executive. Members are directly elected every
six years by party list PR (based on département jurisdictions). The
president of the region is chosen by the assembly and s/he appoints an
executive. Under a system of accumulated mandates (cumul des mandats) a
regional councillor can also simultaneously hold posts at local,
national or European level. |
| Autonomy |
The autonomy of the conseils
regionaux is limited. They have few services of their own and rely upon
départements, communes and central government to put policies into
practice. However, regions have no power over the départements and
communes. Sub-national government is arranged on the basis of clear
lines of responsibilities and functions (blocs de compétences).
French regions have limited
tax-varying powers in which they are free to set the rate – with
certain limitations – on those taxes under the control of the regions
(motor vehicle registration tax; regional tax on property transfer
duty). Regions do not have legislative powers. Each region has a Préfet,
who is the direct representative of the Prime Minister within the
region. The post is taken by the Préfet of the département which
contains the regional capital, and their role is to co-ordinate activity
between tiers and ensure the co-operation of local and regional
authorities in meeting national aims. They can play a highly influential
role.
|
| Functions |
Symmetrical across
regions and limited primarily to strategic functions including regional
economic development and planning, transport planning, tourism,
environment/ conservation, housing strategy, and vocational training.
Regions have a power of general competence. |
| Sources of finance |
- Own taxes 48%
- Block grant 9%
- Tied grant 19%
- Borrowing 20%
- Other 4%
|
| Control of total public
expenditure |
2% |
|
GERMANY |
|
| Tiers of government |
Federal country with four tiers of government: Bund (central
government); Länder (regions); Kreise (counties); Gemeinden (local
authorities). |
| Population range of regions |
Smallest: Bremen 700,000 Largest: Nordrhein-Westfalen 16.7
million |
| Historical formation |
In 1948, 11 directly elected Länder were decreed by the Bund. These
were based on a combination of historical regional boundaries (such as
Bavaria) and artificial creations. Five Länder from the former East
Germany were incorporated in 1990. . |
| Democratic form |
Länder have their own constitutions, parliament and executive.
Members are directly elected via the Additional Member System. Germany’s
second chamber (Bundesrat) consists entirely of Land Ministers and has
power of veto over the first chamber (Bundestag) |
| Autonomy |
A federal system in which the existence of the regions is
constitutionally protected. Länder have primary legislative powers
(although, in practice, they have limited freedom to use them and the
Bund retains the right to legislate in most areas of Land competence).
Länder also have their own judicial system. Länder have the power to
raise taxes for specific regional competencies (which varies between
regions); however, this represents a small proportion of their
income. |
| Functions |
Largely symmetrical across Länder. They are directly responsible for:
education, culture, local law, public safety and order. Work jointly
with federal government to provide adult education, regional economic
development, agriculture, and coastal protection. Share responsibilities
with municipalities and districts for the delivery of a wide variety of
mandatory and discretionary services. |
| Sources of finance |
- Taxes 77.1% (obtained through shared nationally controlled taxes,
received automatically by the Länder).
- Grants 20.6%
- User fees and charges 2.1%
|
| Control of total public
expenditure |
38% |
|
ITALY |
|
| Tiers of government |
Four tiers of government: central state; regioni (regions); and two
tiers of local government: provinces (upper tier); and communes (lower
tier). |
| Population range of regions |
Smallest: Valle d’Aosta 115,000 Largest: Campania 5.8 million |
| Historical formation |
Five ‘special statute regions’ were decreed in 1948 reflecting (in
part) demands for separatism following the centralist era and the
existence of linguistic minorities. A further 15 ‘ordinary statute’
regions were established in 1970. There are moves towards a form of
federalism in Italy, following the 1998 Bassanini laws which introduced
wide ranging reforms and a devolution of tasks from the central state to
the regions and local authorities (2). |
| Democratic form |
The functions of regioni are set down within the national Constitution
and, in the case of special regions, are enshrined within specific
legislation. The assembly (‘regional council’) is directly elected
every five years by a list system, based on provinces. The executive
body (Giunta regionale) is elected by members of the regional council. |
| Autonomy |
In practice, Italian regions are relatively weak. They have nominal
power to legislate in their (limited) areas of competence, though this
is often circumscribed by detailed central legislation. Regioni do not
have tax-raising powers, although the more powerful special regions
receive a share of central government’s VAT and income tax revenues.
The relationship between central state and sub-national government in
Italy is expressed through a ‘star’ system. Theoretically the state
is central with regions, provinces and communes linked on an equal and
reciprocal basis; however, there is a shift occurring whereby provinces
and communes are subordinate to regions, especially so within the
special regions. The current weakness of the Italian regions (which is
changing through the Bassanini laws) is highlighted by the presence of a
centrally appointed ‘prefect’ to monitor the legality of the
assemblies’ activities. |
| Functions |
Ordinary regions: The most important function is the health sector;
others include social welfare, training, vocational education, town
planning, public housing, economic development, tourism and cultural
activities, agriculture, forestry, mining, regional public transport,
public works, environment, and implementation of European Union
regulations and policies. Special regions have a broader range of
functions which are enshrined in specific legislation with
constitutional guarantees. |
| Sources of finance |
Ordinary regions:
- Block grant 13%
- Tied grant 82%
- Borrowing 5%
Special regions:
- Block grants/taxes 55%
- Tied grant 39%
- Borrowing 6%
|
| Control of total public
expenditure |
20% |
2 The reforms were implemented in 2000 and have required regions,
provinces and communes to regulate and manage the following: economic
development; territory; environment and infrastructures; services to people and
community; and regional and local policing. The current allocations of
expenditure to sub-national government are being assessed in relation to these
additional responsibilities.
|
NETHERLANDS |
|
| Tiers of government |
A decentralised unitary state
with three levels of government: the central state; 12 provinces
(regional level); and 572 municipalities (gemeenten). |
| Population range of regions |
Smallest: Flevoland 330,000
Largest: Zuid-Holland 3.4 million |
| Historical formation |
Historically, the provinces are
the component parts of the Dutch state. The Constitution of 1848 and the
Provinces Act 1850 enshrined provinces as the middle tier of government
in the Netherlands. |
| Democratic form |
Elections take place every four
years using the list system, whereby the number of seats in an assembly
corresponds to the distribution of votes in the entire constituency. |
| Autonomy |
The provinces do not have
tax-raising powers. They are entitled to levy a surcharge on both the
motor vehicle tax and the television licence fee; central government
fixes annually the upper limits for the surcharges. Regions do not have
legislative powers. |
| Functions |
Traffic, public transport,
welfare services, town and country planning, environmental protection.
Provinces are also responsible for supervising the municipalities
through their budgets, distributing funds and resources. |
| Sources of finance |
Budgets are controlled by
central government. 81% of revenue comes from central government with
the rest being made up from local taxation. |
| Control of total public
expenditure |
2% |
|
POLAND |
|
| Tiers of government |
Four tiers of government: the
central state; and what are deemed three tiers of local government: 16
voivodships (regions); 373 powiaty (upper tier local government); and
2,500 gmina (lower tier). |
| Population range of regions |
Smallest: Mazovia 5.07m Largest:
Lubuskie 1.02m |
| Historical formation |
Poland introduced reforms of its
‘local’ government system within an Act of Parliament in 1998 and
replaced the existing structure of 49 provinces with two new tiers: a
new regional tier of government of 16 voivodships; and an upper tier of
local government (powiaty). Self-government had been introduced at the
gmina level in 1990. The reforms were intended, in large part, to enable
greater devolution of powers from the centre, greater capacity to
respond to regional economic development needs, and better strategic
planning and delivery of services. |
| Democratic form |
Each voivodship has its own
directly elected parliament (sejmiks), who elect a head of government
(marshal) and who have responsibility for scrutinising the ‘governing
board’ (executive). The executive is made up of five members elected
by the sejmik (but whose members may be drawn from outside the sejmik).
Members of the sejmik are elected using a list system for a period of
four years. |
| Autonomy |
Voivodships appear to be a
largely strategic tier of local government. Their functions are set down
within national legislation, and they have no supervisory role over
powiaty (counties) or gminas (municipalities).They do not have either
legislative or tax-raising powers. Each voivodship has a centrally
appointed voivode who, as a representative of the Prime Minister,
oversees the work of the voivodship and ensures compliance with national
policy priorities. |
| Functions |
The principles
underpinning the distribution of responsibilities between tiers of
government are set down within legislation (although there are
overlapping competencies). The functions of voivodships focus on
regional development, with specific emphasis upon three key areas:
economic development; sustainable development and planning; and
strategic public services such as higher education, specialised health
services and cultural activities. |
| Sources of finance |
|
| |
|
|
PORTUGAL |
|
| Tiers of government |
Portugal does not have regional
government on the mainland. It is a unitary state with three levels of
government: central government; a regional level comprising two
autonomous regions and eighteen administrative districts (central
government outposts); and the local level comprising municipalities and
parishes. |
| Population range of regions |
Autonomous regions: Azores:
236,706 and Madeira: 253,045 |
| Historical formation |
Two different forms: two
autonomous regions of Azores and Madeira, and 18 administrative
(regional) districts, the latter being decentralised arms of central
government. (Note: 1998 referendum for self-governing regions was
rejected by the Portuguese population. In 1999 regional development
agencies were created; although these are not directly elected they form
more than just a level of decentralised regional administration, as they
have been developed from the grass roots up and involve many local
partnerships.) |
| Democratic form |
The two autonomous regions have
political self-determination and are directly elected, with legislative
and executive powers on regional issues within the limit of the
constitution. |
| Autonomy |
As noted, mainland regions are
purely decentralised administrative units. The regions of the Azores and
Madeira have a high level of autonomy. |
| Functions |
The autonomous regions have
legislative powers and structure the services which are of concern to
the regions. They have their own flags, stamps and anthems. |
| Sources of finance |
|
| Control of total public
expenditure |
|
|
SPAIN |
|
| Tiers of government |
Regionalised unitary state
(quasi federal) with three levels of devolved government: 17 regions
(autonomous communities), provinces and municipalities. |
| Population range of regions |
Smallest region: Navarra 540,000
Largest region: Andalousia 7.3 million |
| Historical formation |
The 1978 constitution,
principally in response to pressure from historic regions, allowed for
three routes to regional autonomy, which distinguished ‘fast track’
and ‘slow track’ regions. Originally intended mainly for the
historic regions of Catalonia and the Basque Country, it led to the
creation of 17 elected autonomous regions, partly as a result of ‘autonomy
fever’. Some regions can claim a long-standing historical identity
(such as Catalonia) whilst others cannot (Cantabria, for
instance). |
| Democratic form |
The regions are highly
asymmetrical. Each region has its own state of autonomy with its own
regional institutions: president, executive, parliament, public service
and high court of justice. The regional assemblies are directly elected
by regional list PR and vary in size from 33 to 135 members. The
president is elected by the regional assembly. |
| Autonomy |
The level of autonomy differs
between the ‘historic’ regions and others, although there has been a
degree of convergence in recent years. The historic regions (notably the
Basque Country and Navarra) have almost complete financial autonomy,
their own police service, health and education systems. Other regions
have more modest degrees of autonomy. The constitution allows for
variable competencies both across different regions and within the same
region over time. Competencies are established through bilateral
negotiation with the centre. |
| Functions |
Functions differ between the
historic regions and others. All regions have exclusive responsibility
for education, health, urban planning, public works, agriculture,
culture, and social services. Shared powers include supervision of local
government, transport policy, and environmental protection. A number of
the historic regions have their own police forces, civil law provision
in some fields (such as inheritance), and special tax systems which
amount to almost complete financial autonomy (as above). |
| Sources of finance |
Average across all
regions:
- Ceded taxes 10%
- Block grant 35%
- Tied grant 45%
- Borrowing 9%
- Other 1%
|
| Control of total public
expenditure |
36.28% |
CONTENTS
or ANNEX 3
|
